differences for PR #29

Author: actions-user

02-basics.md

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+---
+title: 'Basics'
+teaching: 35
+exercises: 15
+---
+
+::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: questions
+
+- How do we represent and manipulate data in Fortran?
+
+::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+
+::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: objectives
+
+- Understand the different intrinsic data types
+- Understand the different intrinsic operators and functions available
+
+::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+
+## Fortran data types
+
+Fortran provides the following intrinsic data types:
+
+* numeric types 
+  * `integer`
+  * `real`
+  * `complex`
+* non-numeric types 
+  * `logical`
+  * `character`
+
+### Defining numeric variables
+
+The following program declares a variable with each of the three intrinsic
+numeric types, and provides an initial value in each case.
+```fortran
+program example1
+
+   integer :: i = 1           ! An integer
+   real    :: a = 2.0         ! A floating point number
+   complex :: z = (0.0, 1.0)  ! A complex number as (real-part, imag-part)
+
+end program example1
+```
+Initial values are optional, and these values may be changed later within the code. 
+If a declaration does not specify an initial value, the variable is said to be _undefined_.
+
+### Variable names
+
+The valid Fortran character set for names is `a-z`, `A-Z`, `0-9` and the
+underscore `_`. Valid names must begin with a character. The maximum
+length of a name is 63 characters (introduced in the F2003 standard) with 
+no spaces allowed. This includes names for programs, modules, subroutines, 
+and functions, as well as names for variables.
+
+### The `implicit` statement
+
+By default, variables in Fortran do not need to be declared a specific type, they 
+can just be used within the code. Variables with names beginning with letters `i-n` are implicitly
+of type `integer`, while anything else is of type `real` (unless explicitly declared otherwise).
+
+**This is very bad practice and modern Fortran should not be used in this way.** 
+
+The solution to prevent errors involving undeclared variables (usually arising from
+typos) is to declare that no names have implicit type via the use of the
+```fortran
+implicit none
+```
+statment at the very top of the code. 
+
+With this statement inserted, all variable names must be declared explicitly before they
+are referenced. It is still common to see variables beginning with `i-n` as integers.
+
+::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge
+
+## Use `implicit none`
+
+Edit the above example to include an `implicit none` statment, and print out the three variables
+
+:::::::::::::::: solution
+
+```fortran
+program solution1
+   implicit none
+
+   integer :: i = 1            ! An integer
+   real    :: a = 2.0          ! A floating point number
+   complex :: z = (0.0, 1.0)   ! A complex number as (real-part, imag-part)
+
+   print *, i, a, z
+
+end program solution1
+```
+Compiling and running this code will give the following output
+```
+$ ./a.out 
+  1  2.00000000  (0.00000000,1.00000000)
+```
+
+:::::::::::::::::::::::::
+:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+
+### Parameters
+
+In the above example, it is possible to change the values of initialised variables, e.g.
+```fortran
+program example2
+   implicit none
+
+   real :: a = 2.0
+
+   print *, a
+
+   a = a + 5.0
+
+   print *, a
+
+end program example2
+```
+This will then give the output:
+```
+$ ./a.out 
+   2.00000000    
+   7.00000000   
+```
+However, you can also define constant values that cannot change by defining variables using `parameter`.
+We are then unable to modify `parameter` variables, e.g.
+```fortran
+program example3
+   implicit none
+
+   real, parameter :: pi = 3.14159265
+
+   pi = pi + 2.0
+
+   print *, pi
+
+end program example3
+```
+When compiling this program, this will give an error similar to the following from the `gfortran` compiler:
+```
+example3.f90:6:3:
+
+    6 |    pi = pi + 2.0
+      |   1
+Error: Named constant 'pi' in variable definition context (assignment) at (1)
+```
+
+::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge
+
+## Write a Fortran program to calculate the circumference of a circle
+
+Using the `parameter` statement, write a Fortran program to calculate the circumference of a circle of
+radius 3.0.
+
+::::::::::::::::: hint
+
+The cicumference $c$ of a circle can be calculated from the radius $r$ and constant $\pi$ by
+
+$c = 2 \pi r$
+
+::::::::::::::::::::::
+
+:::::::::::::::: solution
+
+```fortran
+program solution2
+   implicit none
+
+   real, parameter :: pi = 3.14159265
+
+   real :: r=3.0           ! radius of the circle
+   real :: c               ! circumference of the circle
+
+   c = 2.0 * pi * r
+
+   print *, c
+
+end program solution2
+```
+Compiling and running this code will give the following output
+```
+$ ./a.out 
+   18.8495560   
+```
+
+:::::::::::::::::::::::::
+:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+
+## Logical variables
+
+Fortran has a `logical` type that has two literal values, True and False, defined by
+```fortran
+  logical :: switch0 = .false.
+  logical :: switch1 = .true.
+```
+
+### Logical operators and expressions
+
+Values can be tested logical operators `.or.`, `.and.` and `.not.` are available, and 
+these can be used to set the value of logical variables. 
+
+The precedence is illustrated by, e.g.,
+```fortran
+  q = i .or. j .and. .not. k    ! evaluated as i .or. (j .and. (.not. k))
+```
+where q, i, j, and k are all logical variables.
+
+The use of parentheses is highly recommended to avoid ambiguity and/or to add clarity.
+
+### Relational operators
+
+To form logical expressions from numeric or other expressions, we require
+relational operators. The are two forms in Fortran, illustrated in the table
+below. It is recommended that you avoid the older form.
+
+| Relation                 | Operator | Older form | For              |
+|--------------------------|----------|------------|------------------|
+| Less than                | `< `     | `.lt.`     | `integer` `real` |
+| Less than or equal to    | `<=`     | `.le.`     | `integer` `real` |
+| Greater than             | `> `     | `.gt.`     | `integer` `real` |
+| Greater than or equal to | `>=`     | `.ge.`     | `integer` `real` |
+| Equal to                 | `==`     | `.eq.`     | `integer` `real` `complex`|
+| Not equal to             | `/=`     | `.neq.`    | `integer` `real` `complex`|
+
+### Logical equivalence
+
+Equivalence between two logical expressions or variables is established
+via the logical operators `.eqv.` and `.neqv.`. 
+
+While some some compilers may allow the use of `==`, this should be avoided.
+
+### Using logical operators
+
+These operators can be used to check and set the values of logical variables, dependent on other variables, e.g.
+```fortran
+program example4
+   implicit none
+
+   real, parameter    :: pi      = 3.14159265
+   logical, parameter :: switch1 = .true.
+
+   real    :: a=3.0
+   logical :: test1, test2, test3
+
+   test1 = a >= pi               ! True if a is greater than or equal to pi
+
+   test2 = (.not. test1)         ! True if test1 is False, False if test1 is True
+
+   test3 = (test2 .eqv. switch1) ! True if test2 is True, False if test2 is False
+
+   print *, test1
+
+   print *, test2
+
+   print *, test3
+
+end program example4
+```
+Compiling and running this code will give the following output
+```
+$  ./a.out 
+ F
+ T
+ T
+```
+
+## Character variables
+
+Character variables are strings that hold zero or more characters. Some examples are:
+```fortran
+program example5
+  implicit none
+
+  character (len = *), parameter :: string1 = "don't"   ! assumed length of 5 characters
+  character (len = 5)            :: string2 = "Don""t"  ! 5 characters
+  character (len = 6)            :: string3 = ' don''t' ! blank + 5 characters
+
+end program example5
+```
+There should be a `len` specifier. Specifying `len = *` means that the length will be assumed
+from the length of the string. A space is a valid character in a string.
+
+Strings must be defined within quotation marks, either single, `'`, or double, `"`, beginning 
+and ending with the same type of mark. To define a quotation mark within a string, either
+use one of the alternative type, e.g. `"'"`, or use two of the same type, e.g. `''''`, which
+will be intepreted as a single mark within the string.
+
+Strings may be concatenated with the string concatenation operator `//`. For example `string2` 
+and `string3` could be concatenated into a new variable `string4` by
+```fortran
+  string4 = string2//string3
+```
+A single character, or a subset of characters, can be extracted via
+use of an array-index like notation by defining the start and end characters
+to extract, e.g. `string1(1:1)` would extract only the first character from the string 
+variable `string1`. 
+
+::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: challenge
+
+## Working with strings
+
+Using the above `example5`, concatenate `string2` and `string3` into a new variable `string4`, 
+and print out the values of all strings. Also, print the third character of `string4`.
+
+:::::::::::::::: solution
+
+```fortran
+program solution3
+  implicit none
+
+  character (len = *), parameter :: string1 = "don't"   ! 5 characters
+  character (len = 5)            :: string2 = "Don""t"  ! 5 characters
+  character (len = 6)            :: string3 = ' don''t' ! blank + 5 characters
+  character (len = 11)           :: string4             ! length of string2+string3
+
+  string4 = string2//string3
+
+  print *, string1 
+
+  print *, string2
+
+  print *, string3
+
+  print *, string4
+
+  print *, string4(3:3)
+
+end program solution3
+```
+Compiling and running this code will give the following output
+```
+$ ./a.out 
+ don't
+ Don"t
+  don't
+ Don"t don't
+ n
+```
+
+:::::::::::::::::::::::::
+:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+